Wissenschaftliche Arbeit / PhD

Designing for Direction: How Architecture and Cognition Shape Building Navigation​

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1. Abstract​​

 

In modern architecture, the ability to navigate within buildings plays a crucial role, particularly in complex structures such as shopping centers, hospitals, or university buildings. Many users report difficulties in finding their way, leading to stress and inefficiency. This issue raises critical questions: What architectural, cognitive, and technological factors influence spatial perception and orientation? How can architects and designers apply these insights to create more navigable and user-friendly buildings?​

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This literature review addresses psychological and cognitive aspects, architectural design principles, and the role of emerging technologies such as Virtual Reality in improving wayfinding. Through a structured und thematisch gegliederte Auseinandersetzung werden die Ursachen und Potenziale für bessere Orientierung im Raum analysiert. Die Ergebnisse bilden die theoretische Grundlage für das Dissertationsprojekt.

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2. Why People Get Lost in Buildings: Visual Uniformity and Its Impact on Orientation​​​

 

2.1 Visual Uniformity and Its Impact on Orientation

Hannes Eisler, in “Multidimensional similarity: An experimental and theoretical comparison of vector, distance, and set theoretical models II”, examines subjective spatial perception using multidimensional analysis. His research highlights how visual uniformity within architectural spaces can hinder individuals’ ability to distinguish different areas, leading to disorientation (Eisler & Roskam, 1977). This foundational work supports the hypothesis that differentiation is key to orientation.

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2.2 Complexity of Building Layouts

Carlson et al. (2010), in their study "Getting Lost in Buildings," explore key architectural factors contributing to disorientation. Complex layouts with many intersections and lacking spatial hierarchies were found to increase confusion. Their research, echoed in Jamshidi et al. (2020), suggests that simpler, intuitive floorplans improve users’ wayfinding performance. The absence of structural legibility is seen as a core design flaw.

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2.3 Lack of Distinctive Wayfinding Signs

Jamshidi, Ensafi, and Pati (2020) offer a comprehensive review of wayfinding in interior environments. They emphasize the importance of clear, recognizable signage and its placement. Their review compiles numerous case studies, indicating that legible, semantically intuitive signage systems significantly improve navigability and user confidence. This aligns with architectural strategies that incorporate visible landmarks, contrasting materials, and integrated signage design.

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2.4 Psychological Effects of Spatial Design

Lauri Nummenmaa et al. (2018), in their study “Maps of Subjective Feelings,” analyze how spatial design affects emotional and cognitive states. Their findings underline the importance of accounting for affective factors and cognitive load in spatial layout. Overwhelming or monotonous environments increase stress, while emotionally supportive spatial cues improve orientation. These insights suggest a direct link between architectural form, mental processing, and spatial performance.

 

3. The Uniformity of Architectural Spaces

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3.1 The Aesthetic-Functional Ambiguity of Uniformity

Nikos A. Salingaros, in his essay "Symmetry Gives Meaning to Architecture," discusses how uniformity and repetition in architectural design can impact spatial cognition. While visual consistency may offer a sense of coherence, its overuse reduces spatial differentiation, which is crucial for orientation (Salingaros, 2020). Particularly in large-scale environments, repeated forms and surfaces can lead to perceptual disorientation, as users struggle to identify unique reference points. This reinforces the need to balance aesthetic order with functional clarity.

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3.2 Symmetry and Its Role in Navigational Clarity

Symmetry is often perceived as harmonious and aesthetically pleasing, but its spatial effects are nuanced. Azemati et al. (2020) investigate how symmetrical Fassaden are interpreted by users. While symmetry contributes to visual balance, the authors argue that excessive or uncontextual symmetry can obscure spatial cues critical for orientation. When every corridor or facade appears identical, spatial learning is inhibited. Their work highlights the need to distinguish visual harmony from functional legibility.

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3.3 Standardization and the Loss of Spatial Differentiation

Standardization, driven by efficiency in the construction industry, leads to uniform spatial typologies. Haunert (2012) shows how automated design and urban modeling routines reinforce visual repetition. His work on symmetry detection in maps and urban forms provides insight into how computational tools could be repurposed not only to analyze but also to counteract uniformity. This aspect is particularly relevant to the geoinformatic components of my dissertation, where algorithmic tools could be integrated into adaptive navigation support systems.

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3.4 Aesthetic Priorities vs. Wayfinding Performance

Gieryn (2002) explores the cultural and symbolic meanings of buildings, emphasizing how design choices are often shaped by values beyond functionality. While architecture as expression is important, neglecting navigational clarity in favor of pure formalism can alienate users. His thesis that “what buildings do” includes shaping behavior and experience reinforces the argument that form and function must co-evolve. Orientation is not an afterthought; it is a core aspect of architectural performance.

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4. Measuring and Applying Symmetry in Architectural Practice

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4.1 Quantifying Symmetry: From Theory to Application

Nikos A. Salingaros provides a conceptual basis for symmetry in architecture, but its operationalization in digital workflows requires concrete tools. His theories about pattern recognition and visual order serve as a reference for current methods aiming to quantify spatial structures. Symmetry becomes a parameter of navigational efficiency when linked to visual landmarks, transitions, and node distinction.

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4.2 Symmetry Detection in Digital Design Tools

Haunert (2012) introduces algorithmic symmetry detection in urban space analysis and map generalization. While developed for cartographic simplification, these tools have strong potential for use in architectural layout evaluation. Their ability to detect redundant structures and mirror geometries may support the development of navigation-sensitive design guidelines. Integrating such methods into architectural BIM workflows could allow for real-time feedback on spatial clarity during design.

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4.3    The Double-Edged Nature of Symmetry

Bruns and Egenhofer (n.d.) address the perceptual ambiguity of spatial similarity. Their work highlights that while symmetry may enhance coherence, excessive similarity can reduce spatial memorability. In navigation, not all symmetry is beneficial distinguishability is more important than balance. This tension must be carefully managed in design: symmetry can structure, but also confuse.

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4.4 Case Study Analysis: Cognitive Principles in Iconic Designs

Werner and Long (2003) explore architectural cognition through the lens of Le Corbusier’s work. Their case studies show how spatial sequences, perspective shifts, and contrastive volumes support wayfinding even in geometrically rigid environments. They argue for a cognitive reading of design, where spatial decisions are guided not just by form, but by experiential clarity. These findings strengthen the argument that good architecture internalizes cognitive principles.

 

5. Spatial Abilities and Educational Approaches

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5.1 Gender and Individual Differences in Spatial Skills

Research on spatial ability consistently shows individual variability, especially regarding gender differences. Studies in architecture education highlight that men and women often exhibit distinct strengths in spatial visualization and mental rotation. These differences suggest a need for inclusive educational strategies that address diverse cognitive profiles (Frontiers).

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5.2 Virtual Reality as a Tool for Spatial Training

Emerging evidence points to Virtual Reality (VR) as a powerful medium for enhancing spatial understanding. In comparison to static 2D exercises, VR enables embodied exploration and dynamic rotation, improving both performance and engagement (MDPI). For architecture students, this means that abstract spatial concepts can be experienced interactively closing the gap between design theory and spatial intuition.

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5.3 Cognitive Mapping and Multisensory Learning

Cognitive maps help individuals encode and retrieve spatial knowledge. Spatial learning is strengthened when visual, auditory, and haptic information converge. SpringerLink studies show that multisensory learning environments especially those that support wayfinding enhance long-term spatial memory. These insights reinforce the relevance of perception-oriented design strategies in architectural education.

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5.4 Architectural Complexity and Spatial Imagination

Multi-storey buildings with complex circulation patterns challenge even advanced users. Spatial imagination is essential for mental restructuring of vertical movement. Studies from SpringerOpen reveal that learners trained in rotating and elevating perspectives develop stronger mental models of complex structures. This supports the use of 3D visualization and scenario-based learning in spatial design curricula.

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6. Multisensory Architecture and Health-Oriented Design

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6.1 Sensory Environments and Psychological Well-being

Multisensory environments influence emotional and cognitive states. Studies from SpringerOpen demonstrate that spaces addressing sight, sound, and touch reduce anxiety and promote well-being. Particularly in healthcare architecture, where stress levels are elevated, multisensory design can improve both patient outcomes and spatial orientation.

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6.2 Wayfinding in Healthcare Settings

Healthcare facilities often feature complex layouts that confuse users. BilPub Group research on Nigerian hospitals uses axial analysis to show how poor spatial legibility affects movement. Improved layout logic, material contrasts, and spatial landmarks are shown to improve orientation. These insights are transferable to other building types with high cognitive demands.

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6.3 Landscape and Outdoor Navigation Challenges

Spatial abilities are not limited to indoor architecture. In landscape architecture, navigation over varied terrain introduces challenges of scale and orientation. MDPI studies emphasize the need for intuitive paths, clear edges, and multisensory stimuli (e.g., soundscapes, textures) to enhance outdoor wayfinding. Education in this field increasingly adopts multisensory design as a pedagogical tool.

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6.4 Cultural and Historical Patterns of Spatial Experience

Historical urban planning integrated natural patterns and perceptual logic long before digital tools emerged. SpringerLink literature shows how spatial logics were culturally encoded e.g., axiality in classical cities or modularity in Islamic architecture. These logics shaped navigational ease. Understanding their relevance today opens avenues for integrating tradition-informed orientation strategies.

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7. Technological Tools for Enhancing Wayfinding

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7.1 Virtual Reality as Testing Environment

Virtual Reality (VR) allows architects to simulate navigation scenarios and evaluate user experience in real time. It provides an immersive platform to identify spatial confusion, optimize signage, and test alternative layouts. The iterative process becomes more data-driven, as eye tracking and movement data from VR sessions reveal behavior patterns that inform design refinement.

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7.2 Eye Tracking for Spatial Attention Mapping

Eye tracking technology reveals where users focus their attention, which cues they ignore, and when visual overload occurs. This insight is critical for understanding perceptual thresholds and designing for cognitive efficiency. Eye tracking also helps identify visual hierarchies and evaluate if wayfinding elements attract attention as intended.

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7.3 Adaptive Projection as Interactive Navigation Aid

Building on my Master’s work, adaptive projection offers a dynamic approach to spatial communication. Projection-mapped signage, floor arrows, or ambient animations can change based on user position, gaze, or time. This interactivity enhances engagement and allows personalized wayfinding in complex environments. Its application in museums, hospitals, or transit hubs offers promising results.

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7.4 Toward Personalized Navigation Systems

By combining VR simulation, eye tracking data, and adaptive projection, environments can respond to real-time perception and behavior. This fusion enables personalized navigation assistance projecting different cues based on user needs, stress levels, or previous behavior. It represents a paradigm shift from static signage to responsive environments tailored to cognitive diversity.

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8. Towards an Integrative Theory of Navigability

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8.1 From Fragmented Findings to Cohesive Principles

Across architectural, psychological, and technological disciplines, diverse insights have emerged on how individuals perceive, interpret, and move through space. Yet, these findings are often siloed, leading to a fragmented understanding of wayfinding. An integrative theory must consolidate visual cognition, environmental psychology, and interaction design into a unified framework.

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8.2 The Triad of Spatial Orientation: Visual, Cognitive, Responsive

This review identifies three foundational domains of navigability:
Visual: The spatial configuration, landmarks, and graphical signage shape first impressions and mental maps.
Cognitive: Users interpret environments based on memory, attention, and prior experience. Emotional factors modulate spatial understanding.
Responsive: Environments that adapt to perception through projection, lighting, or smart systems can guide users dynamically and reduce uncertainty.

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8.3 Navigability as a Performance Metric in Design

Navigability should not be viewed as a secondary quality, but as a central performance criterion in architectural design. Like energy efficiency or structural stability, wayfinding effectiveness can be simulated, measured, and optimized. Eye tracking, spatial analytics, and user testing (virtual or real) become tools for iterative refinement.

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8.4 Design Implications and Future Research

An integrative theory encourages designers to move beyond intuition or convention. Instead, they can draw on empirical data to inform spatial zoning, circulation routes, and material choices. Future research should focus on hybrid models that combine predictive user behavior, adaptive systems, and embedded cognition especially in high-stakes environments like healthcare, transit hubs, or educational campuses.

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9. Analyzing Spatial Structures and Wayfinding

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9.1 Spatial Configuration and Navigation Behavior

Studies in airports and hospitals show how layout patterns such as axial symmetry, node density, and segment length affect navigational performance. SpringerLink and SpringerOpen literature suggests that certain spatial geometries facilitate better mental mapping and movement efficiency, especially when supported by visual cues.

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9.2 Behavioral Analysis in Complex Spaces

Advanced tracking methods, including motion mapping and behavioral heatmaps, allow the analysis of pedestrian behavior. These tools reveal decision points, confusion zones, and the effectiveness of navigational aids. They serve as critical evaluation mechanisms for iterative design.

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9.3 Gender Differences in Wayfinding Performance

Research has uncovered gender-related differences in spatial perception and strategy use. Men tend to rely more on metric orientation; women often perform better using landmarks and relative spatial relationships. These findings suggest that universal design must accommodate diverse navigational approaches.

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10. Historical and Cultural Influences on Spatial Concepts

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10.1 Evolution of Spatial Organization

From Roman grid cities to Islamic courtyard typologies, historical design strategies reflect deeply ingrained cultural logics. These systems often embody intuitive orientation principles centrality, hierarchy, axiality that remain relevant today.

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10.2 Cultural Cognition and Urban Navigation

Different cultures develop different cognitive maps. Collectivist cultures, for example, emphasize communal orientation cues, while individualist cultures favor self-referenced spatial logic. Designing for diverse users requires an awareness of these cognitive-cultural dimensions.

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10.3 Tradition-Inspired Design Principles

Reviving historical patterns (e.g., sight lines to domes, orientation toward courtyards) can enhance spatial legibility. This doesn’t mean returning to the past, but abstracting principles that support clarity and identity in contemporary design.

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11. Environmental and Health Psychology in Architecture

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11.1 Sick Building Syndrome and Design Factors

Research shows that overly uniform, poorly ventilated, or visually monotonous spaces contribute to stress and health issues, such as Sick Building Syndrome (SBS). Architecture must consider the sensory and psychological needs of users.

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11.2 Spatial Design and Emotional Regulation

Spaces with balanced light, tactile diversity, and acoustic control help modulate mood and attention. Evidence from SpringerOpen suggests that these qualities also improve orientation and reduce cognitive fatigue.

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11.3 Design for Well-being and Navigability

Wayfinding and well-being are interlinked: confused users experience higher stress. Conversely, environments designed with multisensory and cognitive principles foster emotional stability and efficient navigation.

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12. References

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• Azemati, H., Jam, F., Ghorbani, M., Dehmer, M., Ebrahimpour, R., Ghanbaran, A., & Emmert-Streib, F. (2020). The role of symmetry in the aesthetics of residential building façades using cognitive science methods. Symmetry, 12(9), 1438. https://doi.org/10.3390/sym12091438

• Bruns, H. T., & Egenhofer, M. J. (n.d.). Similarity of spatial scenes.

• Carlson, L. A., Hölscher, C., Shipley, T. F., & Dalton, R. C. (2010). Getting lost in buildings. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(5), 284-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721410383243

• Eisler, H., & Roskam, E. E. (1977). Multidimensional similarity: An experimental and theoretical comparison of vector, distance, and set theoretical models II. Acta Psychologica, 41(5), 335-363. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(77)90013-0

• Gieryn, T. F. (2002). What buildings do. Theory and Society, 31(1), 35-74. https://www.jstor.org/stable/658136

• Haunert, J.-H. (2012). A symmetry detector for map generalization and urban space analysis. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 74, 66-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2012.08.004

• Jamshidi, S., Ensafi, M., & Pati, D. (2020). Wayfinding in interior environments: An integrative review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.549628

• Nikos A., S. (2020). Symmetry gives meaning to architecture. Symmetry: Culture and Science, 31(3), 231-260. https://doi.org/10.26830/symmetry20203

• Nummenmaa, L., Hari, R., Hietanen, J. K., & Glerean, E. (2018). Maps of subjective feelings. PNAS, 115(37), 9198-9203. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1807390115

• Werner, S., & Long, P. (2003). Cognition meets Le Corbusier Cognitive principles of architectural design. In C. Freksa, W. Brauer, C. Habel, & K. F. Wender (Eds.), Spatial Cognition III (pp. 112-126). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45004-1_7

 

​End of Literature Review - prepared as part of the PhD application by Linus Manuel Schilling, Universität Münster, 2025.